Body Art and the Asian Culture free essay sample

Body Art the Asian Culture Marcie Helman March 22, 2009 Body art is a definitive and visual part of the Asian culture used to identify social and religious representations. The term tattoo is derived from the Tahitian word tatu, meaning to mark [1]. Throughout history, many cultures have socially acceptable ways in which to showcase their individuality. Contrary to popular belief, in the Asian culture, body modification is typically considered to be distasteful and socially unacceptable. The resurgence and ultimate popularity of the Asian Hanzi and Kanji characters is most prevalent in todays younger generation. However, the significance of Asian characters used in todays modern society is not as symbolic as its ancient representation. In the early 1700s, the Japanese used tattoos as a form of branding as a classification of criminals within their society. Those who bore the mark of dishonor on their foreheads were called Ronin, a masterless samurai warrior[2]. We will write a custom essay sample on Body Art and the Asian Culture or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page These criminals were believed to be the grass root society in which the yakuza was born. The Yakuza felt that because tattooing was painful, it was a proof of courage; because it was permanent, it was evidence of lifelong loyalty to the group; and because it was illegal, it made them outlaws forever. Historians note that this type of punishment replaced the earlier ostracism of nose or ear amputation. These types of punishments are clearly very visible and physical attributes that cannot be shielded or otherwise hidden. The Horis, the Japanese tattoo artist, were the undisputed masters in the use of color, perspective and imaginative design. One of the most intricate and colorful tattoo designs is found in the Irezumi, a culturally Japanese form of the body art. Early Chinese traditions regarding body art is quite surprising given our modern culture and the freedom of expression. It was believed that in early China, the art of Ci Shen and Wen Shen[3], loosely translated means to puncture the body, was considered distasteful and was an uncommon practice because it was a desecration of the body. The Chinese believe that the body is a precious gift and must be treated with respect. To harm, or in this case, puncture, was clearly sacrilegious. Synonymous with the Japanese culture, it was also used as a form of branding for their criminal population. There are hundreds of islands that make up Polynesia (also referred to as Oceania) including the more well-known islands of Hawaii, Tahiti, New Zealand, Marquesas, Fiji, Tonga, and Samoa. Early Polynesian history is not of written form, therefore, the use of this art to express their individuality was more pronounced than that of the Eastern lands of Japan and China. Most of what is known today within the French Polynesian society has been passed from generation to generation through legends, songs and ritual ceremonies. People were able to easily identify each others origins solely based on the design of their body art. Polynesian body art is used in many ritualistic and ceremonial rites of passage. Different symbols, design motifs and markings depict maturity, genealogy and rank within their society. Polynesian tattooing is considered to be the most intricate and skillful tattooing of the ancient world. It is believed that most everyone in ancient Polynesian society bore a tattoo; it was a symbol of their mana, their spiritual power or life force[4]. The design and placement on the body of the tattoo is decided by the master, a highly revered elder within the village and surrounding community. Other variables that determine design and location of the tattoo on the body are life events. An example would be if they were a warrior; preparing for or returning heroically from, battle. A composite of the more familiar Polynesian islands with their cultural adaptations regarding tattoos and interpretations within their social group will be elaborated below. Captain Cook had assisted in the popularity of this art by discussions with other British citizens. It has been noted that Mai, a Polynesian who accompanied Captain Cook back to the British Isles had become partly famous and enjoyed celebrity status because of his tattoos. By the middle of the 18th century, it had become a tradition in the British Navy and by 1862 was commonplace to have at least one professional tattoo artist in residence at most British ports[5]. In Thailand, the Sak Yant is a protective tattoo that covers the body of Thai soldiers. This is an ancient tradition that spans centuries. One of he most highly esteemed locations for Sak Yant is located about 30 miles west of Bangkok called the Wat Bang Phra Buddhist temple. In todays modern society, incorporating the use of both Asian character symbols as well as the Asian-inspired art such as dragons and tigers, the art has become much more a part of contemporary lifestyles. As cited above, the art of tattooingspans the Asian region in ways that are intricate with its culture. The direction in which tattooing as an ar t and personal statement seems to be making its inroads into the middle-class community, allowing our newest generation of twenty-somethings to lead the way. With the traditional Asian culture, it seems to be that even the most austere conservatives are more tolerant and accepting, maybe even allowing, this brand of individuality. It is also reflected in the popularity of American youths depiction of body art who are brandishing Asian inspired motifs that \are more concurrent with traditional styles. Most notably, North American statistics show that one in seven people have at least one tattoo further emphasizing how tattoos are appearing more frequently than in previous generations. REFERENCES

Behind A Convicts Eyes, Behind Prison Walls in a Modern American Prison essays

Behind A Convict's Eyes, Behind Prison Walls in a Modern American Prison essays 1950's films about babes behind bars' aside, even Hollywood has had difficulty fully romanticizing the experience of prison. Even Hollywood shows a prison that eviscerates the human soul in a horrific fashion, as seen in films such as "Hurricane" and "Animal Factory." The protagonists of both films are changed forever because of their prison experiences. They are, and this is perhaps the Hollywood' element of their story, changed for the better. But the changes come more along the lines of a what doesn't kill you makes you stronger' line of narrative argument, rather than because prison fulfills an essentially rehabilitative function. It would be nice if prisons could rehabilitate as well as destroy. But the nature of the system seems to do more to keep individuals whom are harmful to society, away from the rest of so-called law abiding society, rather than to really change the ineffective life patterns and emotional coping mechanisms that exist within the structural life patterns of criminals. Behind A Convict's Eyes does little to alter this sense of prison as a holding cell' of the human soul, a site of stasis rather than of shifting consciousness for most. Perhaps this is because the central protagonist will never leave the prison whose existence he discusses. But it may also be because of the nature of the incarceration system as a Behind A Convict's Eyes as a real-life depiction of life in modern American prison lacks even the Hollywood touches of a protagonist denied justice, or the solidarity that ostensibly exists behind bars. There is a prison culture,' the book makes clear. Just as a criminal culture encouraged individuals to participate in criminal activity while they were living on the outside,' similarly there is also a culture of the criminally incarcerated that exists on the inside of prison walls. But the sadness and the hopelessness o...

Pharmacological Management of Major Depression in Older Adults Using Essay

Pharmacological Management of Major Depression in Older Adults Using Selective Serotonin-Reuptakes Inhibitors - Essay Example They have minimal effect on noradrenalin and dopamine activity, compared to the tricyclics or MAOIs. Some of the drugs, like fluoxetine, have a mood elevating effect when used in healthy individuals. Fluoxetine drug has the longest half-life amongst all approved SSRIs with drug and side effects persisting up to six weeks after the termination of therapy. Introduction Serotonin is an important neurotransmitter, a local hormone in the gut, a component of the platelet clotting process, and is thought to play a role in migraine headache. Serotonin is also one of the mediators of the signs and symptoms of carcinoid syndrome, an usual manifestation of carcinoid tumor, a neoplasm of enterochromaffin cells. Patients with non-operable tumor, take serotonin antagonist for a useful treatment. The diagnosis of depression still rests primarily on the clinical interview. Major depressive disorder (MDD) is characterized by depressed mood most of the time for at least 2 weeks and/ or loss of interes t or pleasure in most activities. Additionally, depression is associated with sleep, as well as diet disturbances and deficits in cognition and energy. Thoughts of guild, worthlessness and suicide are common. Coronary artery disease, diabetes and stroke appear to be more common in depressed patients and depression may considerably worsen the prognosis for patients with a variety of comorbid medical conditions (Katzang, 2009; Rang, 2009; Kaushik, 2011). Reports by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention highlight the fact that antidepressant drugs were the most commonly prescribed medications in the USA. It is observed that American physicians have been increasingly inclined to use antidepressants to treat a host of conditions that patients have been increasingly receptive to their use. Major depression is commonly associated with a variety of medical conditions from chronic pain to coronary artery disease, panic disorder, generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD) specifically in older individuals or other related old age diseases which enhances the burden of depressive thoughts and also affects the quality or life. All these reasons paved the way for growth in the use of antidepressants ( Katzang, 2009; Rang, 2009). Comparison of SSRIs with Tricyclic Antidepressants (TCAs) - The first line of antidepressant treatment suggested for elderly population involves SSRIs (Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors). There are weak facts for this suggestion as studies carried out highlight the comparative usefulness, protection, acceptability, as well as success of SSRIs and TCAs suggesting that there are a few optional returns of both these drugs over one another. Moreover, there is always a potential danger of falls which is prevalent in elderly patients, hyponatremia, loss of weight and sexual dysfunction, as well as drug-drug interactions. Therefore, SSRIs and TCAs must be prescribed by physician s for elderly patients considering frequency and severity of depression (Herrmann, 2000). Pathophysiology of Major Depression Observations reveal that there is a tremendous shift that has been witnessed for understanding the pathophysiology of major depression. Initially, the amount of monoamines was considered to be the central to the biology of depression. Evidence suggests that neurotrophic and endocrine factors

Purchasing Development Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Purchasing Development - Assignment Example For instance, a general purpose purchasing system might procure materials the way we want it to but doesn’t give us a receipt of each individual transaction (assuming we need receipts for each and every transaction). Design systems on the other hand are specifically designed from business to business and provide all functionalities that are needed for a successful purchasing function. It is necessary that procurement systems be integrated in all processes and departments of an organization. This would save the organization a lot of time and money as whenever anyone would require something, all he needs to do is send a procurement request to the purchasing department rather than waiting for the purchasing department to figure out for itself when inventory count goes down and wait for them to reorder. Sometimes there might be commercial issues arising as a result of change in organizational business plans. For instance our organization might aim to cut down on its costs as a way to maximize profits. It might plan to do so by purchasing raw materials and other supplies at a lower cost than usual. The procurement system here would need to consider whether switching suppliers to one offering a lower cost would still mean that the supplies are of the same quality. It would also need to consider whether the supplier would be able to deliver on time and not back out at the very last moment and leave us doomed. Such decisions need to be taken by the procurement department bearing the risk that a risk that a new supplier might default at any time! James (2009) in his book Buying Complex Systems stresses how it is very necessary to properly define the objectives of the purchasing operations and make sure they support the strategic objectives of the company as a whole. For instance if an organization aims to differentiate its product by offering high quality products and on the other hand the purchasing operation aims to save on money and therefore purchases low qua lity raw material then then definitely the overall aim of delivering high quality products won’t be met. The objectives of the purchasing operations need to be in line with the organization’s strategy if the organization wants to prosper. Evaluate the current and future effectiveness of an identified purchasing operational system I’m going to discuss the purchase operational system of the Agha’s Supermarket. The mart is located in the posh locality of Clifton and caters to thousands of people on a daily basis. The store is divided into many sections like crockery and cutlery, food items, vegetables etc. The purchase manager is responsible for making purchases on an overall basis. The purchase manager has a team of people, each of whom is sent out by him to different sections of the market to see the stock requirements. The team surveys the section heads every second day and pens down the stock requirement on a piece of paper. The entire team meets the pur chase operations manager the next and report to him about the stock requirement. The purchasing manager then places purchase orders and goods are obtained by the company the very next day. The current system isn’t ideal enough to deal with unexpected demand fluctuations. Miscalculations might be made by section heads while ordering stock and in the meanwhile stock outs may be experienced leading to nil sales and loss of

Role Of Chromosome 21 In Alzheimers Disease Biology Essay

Role Of Chromosome 21 In Alzheimers Disease Biology Essay Down syndrome is a genetic disease that caused by trisomy of Human chromosome 21. Down syndrome is common chromosomal disorder of mental retardation in humans. It is caused by the three types of chromosomal abnormalities namely, free trisomy 21, translocation Down syndrome and mosaic Down syndrome. Most of the Down syndrome individuals experience Alzheimer-like neuropathology like dementia, neurofibrillary tangles and many others. Genes that are in Chromosome 21 which includes SOD-1, DSCR1, APP gene and S100B, are highly involved in the relationship between Down syndrome and Alzheimer disease. Besides the genes involved, other factors like oxidative stress and hormone will be discussed in this review too. There are two different types of hypotheses associated with Down syndrome namely, developmental instability and gene-dosage effect. Introduction Down syndrome is a common chromosomal disorder of mental retardation in humans. It is caused by the trisomy of chromosome 21. Down syndrome is named after John Laugdon Down in 1866.There is three different types of chromosomal abnormalities namely, free trisomy 21, translocation Down syndrome and mosaic Down syndrome. Over 90% of the time, non disjunction and failure to separate the chromosome pairs during meiosis are the principal cause of Down syndrome. Down syndrome is named after John Laugdon Down in 1866. The first person that published the relationship between Alzheimers disease-type neuropathology to clinical dementia in adults with Down syndrome was Jervis in 1948 and the person to demonstrate this disorder is due to the trisomy of chromosome 21 was by Jerome Lejeune in 1959. The symptoms associated with Down syndrome are diminished muscle tone, congenital heart disease, small skull, slanting eyes and retarded growth and development. Individuals with Down syndrome usually hav e the tendency of developing neuropathological changes like Alzheimer disease. Down syndrome has an overall incidence of 1 in 1000 live births when the mother aged 30, increasing 9 in 1000 births when the mother is aged 40 (Hook et al., 1983). Alzheimer disease is a neurodegenerative disease which maybe is found in Down syndrome individuals. This disease is named after a neuropathologist, Alois Alzheimer in 1906. Down syndrome individuals experience the Alzheimer-like neuropathology by their mid-40s. In the beginning, Alzheimer disease affects parts of brain like memory and languages. But after a period of time, this disease will progress and cause problems in all aspects of our life. Alzheimer disease has 2 forms, familial and sporadic forms. Familial Alzheimer disease is a rare disease which is genetically acquired. There are mainly 3 types of lesions that are observed in Alzheimer disease. It is then caused by the mutations in several genes like APP which will lead to the over production of the amyloid-beta protein. The most common form of Alzheimer disease is sporadic form which contributes to 90% of Alzheimer disease cases. The first type is the neuritic plaques, extracellular deposits of fibrillar beta amyloid surrou nded by degenerating neuronal processes and terminals. The next type of lesions is intraneuronal neurofibrillary tangles, primarily composed of abnormally hyperphospholated tau protein and lastly, it is vascular beta-amyloidosis associated with fibrillar amyloid deposition within the vascular wall. Over time, these pathological processes contribute to synaptic and neuronal loss, deterioration of neuronal networks, brain atrophy and dementia (Victor Ropper, 2001). Nowadays, people have longer life span and hence the Alzherimer disease become much more worrying for us as it will become a major public concern. There were 26.6 million of people that are suffering of the Alzheimer disease in 2006 and this number will continue to grow. It is then estimated to affect 1 in 85 people worldwide by the year of 2050. In fact, it was not until 1985 that research explicitly focused on aging related changes in health status and cognition of adults with intellectual disabilities, and in particular those with Down syndrome, began in earnest (Janicki et al, 1985). In Down syndrome, there are two different types of hypotheses associated namely, developmental instability and gene-dosage effect. The developmental instability hypothesis indicated that the correct balance of gene expression in the development is being disrupted. But this hypothesis is being questioned since other autosomal trisomy syndromes do not lead to the same clinical pattern (Shapiro et al,2001). In another case, the gene-dosage effect hypothesis, specific gene that is over expressed is responsible for the Down syndrome phenotypic abnormalities which indicated is trisomy of the Chromosome 21 (Delabar et al,1993). The Genes In chromosome 21, the most critical part that affects Down syndrome phenotype is the long arm(q) of chromosome 21. The critical region in chromosome 21 that is important to Alzheimer disease are amyloid precursor protein (APP) located at Chromosome 21q21.3 , superoxide dismutase gene (SOD-1) located at Chromosome 21q22.11, Beta-site APP-cleaving 2 enzyme (BACE2) located at Chromosome 21q22.3, carbonyl reductase (CBR) located at Chromosome 21q22.1 and cystathionine beta-synthase (CBS) located at Chromosome 21q22.3 . The critical region in chromosome 21 that is important to Down syndrome are glycinamide formyl transferase (GART) located at Chromosome 21q22.1, SOD-1, Cu2+/Zn2+ superoxide dismutase, beta subunit of S100 calcium-binding protein (S100B) located at Chromosome 21q22.3, Down syndrome critical region gene 1 (DSCR1) located at 21q22.3 and Intersectin 1 (ITSN1). The Amyloid precursor protein (APP) APP gene is located on human chromosome 21 and codes for a transmembrane protein that is expressed in both neurons and astrocytes. This gene is important in the relationship between Down syndrome and Alzheimer disease. Overexpression of APP gene will lead to the increase production of amyloid-beta protein which is the main protein component of senile plaque. The cause of the familial Alzheimer disease is by the mutation n the APP gene. The amyloid-beta protein is formed by the proteolytic cleavage of the large, type-1 integral membrane-spanning glycoprotein APP by secretases. It has two different pathways, the amyloidogenic pathway and the nonamyloidogenic pathway. The amyloidogenic pathway is beta-secretase cleaves APP to generate APPsB, a 100-kDa soluble NH2-terminal fragment and a 12-kDa membranebound carboxyl-terminal fragment. Hence, the nonamyloidogenic pathway is that cleaved within its amyloid-beta region (aminoacids 16-17), at the alpha-secretase cleavage site, to produce an N-terminal fragment, APPsa, and a C-terminal APP fragment of 83 amino acids (Kang et al,1987). In normal mechanism of the brain, there is stable distribution of beta-amyloid in the brain and this intracellular beta-amyloid is essentially in the entire life indicated that beta-amyloid within neurons represents a product of normal metabolism. The two most common species of beta-amyloid are AB40 and AB42. Beta-amyloid will start to accumulate during younger times and with increasing in age, the amount will progressively increase. During middle ages like 35 years, beta-amyloid associated neuropathology will accelerate tremendously. The soluble APP is the most toxic APP which can have neurotrophic activities and longer aggregating forms. The amyloid-beta protein at high concentration will lead to neurotoxic whereas at low concentration it can function as a neurotrophic factor. When amyloid-beta protein is oxidized, the solubility will decrease and hen will result in the accumulation of the intracellular microglial. This accumulation will increase the concentration of amyloid-beta protein and lead to more plaque formation. Amyloid-beta protein will also induce oxidative stress directly and activating microglia indirectly (Yankner et al, 1990). Although it has been a strong standing that amyloid-beta protein contributes to the Alzheimer disease but there is evidence that amyloid-beta protein is very useful in our body. Amyloid-beta protein provides an important role in both synapse and in synaptic structure-functional plasticity that underlie learning and memory (Koudinov et al, 2001). The autopsy studies in brains of older Down syndrome individuals showed that senile plaque and neurofibrillary tangles and in the brains and some indivuals show a much earlier onset. This maybe suggest that there is an apoptotic action happening and may result in the large amount of neuronal death in the brain. It has been studies to show that APP metabolism in involved in the peripheral tissues. Changes occurs in APP metabolism is noted in the platelets, lymphocytes and fibroblasts in both Down syndrome and Alzheimer disease individuals. This change in APP showed that there is two to three fold of increase plasma concentration in both amyloid-beta protein(1-40) and amyloid-beta protein(1-42) in Down syndrome individuals and also increase of mRNA of APP. The Beta-site APP-cleaving 2 enzyme (BACE2) BACE is a transmembrane aspartyl protease and has a second protein called BACE2 that is 55% identical to BACE.BACE2 has two active site motifs of aspartic protinases which are located at residues 93 to 96 of DTGS and residues 289 to 292 of DSGT. BACE2 has a minor cleavage site at the beta-site of APP and also a major cleavage in the beta-amyloid region that is close to the alpha-secretase site. BACE2 is said to contribute to the amyloid-beta protein production. Some authors investigate the expression of BACE2 in the frontal context of the Down syndrome patients and hence, the immunoreactivity of BACE2 in Down syndrome patients with Alzheimer disease and control is compared. The results show that in neurorofibrillary tangle-bearing neurons there is BACE2 but not in those Down syndrome patient without Alzheimer disease. So, this will give an indication that BACE2 contribute to the Alzheimer-type neuropathology of Down syndrome (Barbiero et al, 2002). In Alzheimer individual platelets, there is a significant amount of reduction in the BACE2 which suggest that this BACE2 cause increase Alzheimer neuropathology. The Down syndrome critical region gene 1 (DSCR1) and The Intersectin 1 (ITSN1) The DSCR1 gene is located at the human chromosome 21 and it encodes for the calcipressin 1 which inhibit calcineurin activity by interacting with calcineurin A. So, phosphorylation of calcipressin 1 will inhibit the activity of calcineurin and this will allow the control the half life of calcipressin by increasing its degradation. To protect the cells from getting damaged, negative feedback mechanism of DSCR1 gene should be activated. In brain, heart and skeletal muscle, the DSCR1 is highly expressed. It was shown that DSCR1 is over expressed in the individual brain of the Down syndrome fetuses and post mortem and for those Alzheimer disease individuals, they also showed DSCR1 mRNA levels to be two to three times higher than the control. Basically, overexpression of DSCR1 can affect two calcineurin-dependent pathways by blocking calcineurin activity. So, when there is an increase of DSCR1, it may disrupt endocytosis and the vesicle recycling because of the calcineurin-dependent dephosphin dephosphorylation. Next, the hyper The ITSN1gene is located in human chromosome 21 and it encodes for endocytic protein ITSN1. In this gene, there are two major mRNA transcripts which divided into 6kb and 11kb, short and long isoforms. These isoforms are expressed in the brain but in different cell types. It has been detected in western blotting that long form is neuronal specific while the short form is in glial cells and for those Down syndrome individual, there is an over expression of the long isoform in the brain. These genes are involved in the neruronal endocytosis in the pathology of the Down syndrome and Alzheimer disease. In neuronal endocytosis, it is very important for the neuronal repair and survival as the secretory vesicles need to be reuptake during the synaptic transmission after any neuronal damage. The Minibrain-Kinase Gene The gene minibrain-kinase maybe associated with Down syndrome. This gene is encoded to the Down syndrome critical region 21q22.2. There has been studies that showed that the over expression will cause congnitive impairments with Down syndrome and increases in apoptotic cell death and reduction in neuronal differentiation which altered neuronal plasticity and intellectual disability observed in Down syndrome (Murakami et al, 2006). The Immune System Astrocytes also play an important role in old Down syndrome patients brain. Upon activation in the brain of the Down syndrome patient, it will express more of the S100B, an astrocyte-derived neurite growth-promoting factor. S100B is associated in dystrophic neurite formation and in plaque evolution and also in neurofibrillary tangle evolution in Alzheimer disease. S100B is secreted by astrocytes and increase the intraneuronal free calcium levels and stimulates the growth of neuronal processes. In the studies of S100B, it showed that the number of astrocytes expressing S100B in Down syndrome patient was about twice as that to the controls of all ages. Another way to test for the relationship between Down syndrome and Alzheimer disease is by the complement cascade, C1q. C1q accumulates in amyloid-beta protein deposits in neurons within Down syndrome brain. In this case, the increase level of C1q will suggest that it is responsible for the acceleration phase of Alzheimer disease pathogenesis in Down syndrome patient (Stoltzner et al, 2000). The Oxidative Stress Another factor that is involved in both Alzheimer disease and Down syndrome is oxidative stress. As we all know that oxygen is very important for life but the byproducts are very harmful. These byproducts include reactive oxygen species like superoxide and hydroxyl and hydrogen peroxide and peroxynitrite (Andersen et al.,2004). The amyloid precursor protein and the cytoplasmic enzyme Cu2+/Zn2+ superoxide dismutase (SOD-1) are responsible for reactive oxygen species homeostasis. SOD-1 is responsible for the first line of antioxidant defense by catalyzing the dismutation of O2à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢- to molecular oxygen (O2) and H2O2, which can be converted by catalase (CAT) and by (selenium-containing) glutathione peroxidase (GPX) to water. Since SOD-1 is located at chromosome 21, so the trisomy of chromosome 21 will lead to accumulation of hydrogen peroxide because of the imbalance in the ratio of SOD-1 to CAT and GPX. Hence, this will lead to the increase of neuronal cell death which also c ontributes to the progressive mental decline in both Down syndrome and Alzheimer disease. In peripheral tissues, SOD-1 has 50% more in patients than normal in the immune system. Hence, it will disrupt the immune system to make the patients to be weaker (Benzi et al, 1997). The E2F-1 Gene The E2F-1 gene is located in human chromosome 20. It encodes a protein E2F-1 transcriptional factor E2F-1. This transcription factor plays major role in in the control of cell cycle, action of tumor suppressor proteins and DNA damage to apoptosis. The ETS2 Gene The ETS2 gene is located on human chromosome 21q22.2. This gene encodes for a protein Protein C-ets-2 which is a transcriptional factor of beta-APP gene. It will specifically bind to the beta-APP promoter and work with transcription factor AP1 (Wolvetang et al, 2003). The Oestrogen Hormone Oestrogen has a role of protecting neurons from the toxic effect by amyloid-beta , ameliorated the cerebral metabolism and also increase the level of acetylcholine in the basal forebrain and hippocampus. It also has the antioxidant effect which is very helpful towards Alzheimer disease. Other beneficial impacts include reduction of the lipid peroxidation, prevention intracellular peroxide accumulation and reduce the degradation of the neurons in the brain. So, it is said that estrogens reduce the occurrence of Alzheimer disease of Down syndrome woman. Woman patients with Down syndrome may have an earlier occurrence or more serve form of Alzheimer disease when these women has early onset of menopause compared to those late menopause women (Schupf et al., 2006). But those post-menopause women that receive estrogen replacement therapy may have a lower occurrence in having Alzheimer disease. The Apolopoprotein E Gene Another factor that attribute to the late onset of Alzheimer disease is Apolopoprotein E (APOE) gene. This gene is located on chromosome 19 and has 3 types of alleles (Corder et al., 1993). The allele that is responsible for Alzheimer disease is APOE ÃŽÂ µ4 allele. It is found that patients with Alzheimer disease has higher frequencies of the APOE ÃŽÂ µ4 allele compared with those without other APOE genotypes and have a earlier onset of Alzheimer disease (Corder et al., 1993). Another allele that has good contribution towards Alzheimers disease for adults with Down syndrome is APOE ÃŽÂ µ2. It is the least common allele but can reduce the risk of Alzheimers disease for adults with Down syndrome (Schupf et al,1996). Cholesterol is transported by high-density lipoproteins such as APOE, and these suggested of the hypothesis that the relationship between APOE and risk of Alzheimers disease may be linked to cholesterol metabolism. Statins or HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors are currently the most widely prescribed class of cholesterol lowering medication. In a number of studies, it has been shown that the use of statin does reduced the risk of the Alzheimers disease. So, for participants with a total cholesterol level of 200 mg/dL or more, the effect of statin significantly lower the risk of dementia compared to that of other participants with lower total cholesterol (Green, Jayakumar, Benke, Farrer, 2002). The Sortilin-related receptor-1 Gene On chromosome 11 (11q24.1), there is this gene called sortilin-related receptor-1 gene (SORL1). It is a 250-kDa membrane protein that is expressed in the neurons of the nervous system. The SORL1 gene has the role of intracellular trafficking between membrane and hence, interacting with amyloid precursor protein (APP) in endosomes and golgi. This gene function to get rid the excess beta amyloid protein. So, when there is little expression of this gene, it will cause to the increase of beta amyloid protein hence it will lead to the accumulation of beta amyloid protein. Since there is already a large amount of beta amyloid protein in the brains of the Down syndrome patients, then it will have problem to decrease the amount of beta amyloid protein so it will increase the risk of having Alzheimer disease. (Rogaeva et al, 2007) The Phorsphorylation Phosphorylation is a mechanism that controls the activity of enzymes and receptors by switching on the regulation of the cell function. Constant activation of the phosphorylation mechanism will increase the accumulation of the of neurofibrillary tangles, abnormal twisted protein filaments that form within affected neurons and are composed mainly of hyperphosphorylated tau protein (Hardy et al, 1991). So, the hyperphosphorylated tau protein in the brain of the transgenic mice with extra human minbrain-kinase gene also give us the indication of the overexpression of minibrain-kinase could contribute to the early onset of Alzheimers disease associated with Down syndrome ( Wegiel et al, 2008). The Age There have been studies that suggest that overall dementia risk increases beginning in the late 40s or early 50s and even some twenty years earlier than it does within the general population. However, there is still some individuals vary on the onset age. A small minority of adults with Down syndrome begin to experience substantial declines in cognition before age 50, yet another minority is able to mature well into their late 60s or early 70s without experiencing signs or symptoms of Alzheimers disease (Schupf, 2002). There are studies on the different ages of mothers who give birth to their children to have risk of having dementia. The results showed a four-fold increase in risk of dementia among mothers who gave birth to their children with Down syndrome less than 35 years of age compared with mothers who were older than 35 years when their child with Down syndrome was born or compared with mothers of children with other intellectual disabilities (Schupf et al., 1994). The Biomarkers Biomarkers are used to monitor diseases progression so it is very useful in quantifying the effects of any available treatment regimen. Because biomarkers are strongly associated with disease risk, detection of early changes in biomarker levels provides an opportunity for early intervention to delay or prevent disease onset (Lesko Atkinson, 2001). To date, validated biomarkers for Alzheimers disease in adults with Down syndrome have yet to be discovered. However, there are some biomarkers that have been investigated. These include measures of the quantity and type of beta amyloid protein found in blood plasma and telomere size in metaphase and interphase preparations as well as on individual chromosomes (Schupf, Patel et al., 2001). There is a close relationship between Down syndrome and Alzheimer disease mainly cause by the overexpression of the APP gene and lead to the over production of the protein, amyloid-beta protein(1-40/42), the major contribution to Alzheimer disease pathogenesis in Down syndrome patient. It is reported in both cross-sectional and prospective analyses that beta-amyloid 1-42 levels increased in demented adults with Down syndrome but not beta amyloid 1-40 levels. For people who are nondemented but with high plasma beta-amyloid 1-42 levels were over two times as likely to develop Alzheimers disease as those with lower levels (Schupf, Patel et al., 2001). Telomeres are DNA sequences that located at the end of the chromosome which is a series of repeats of the TTAGGG nucleotide sequence. These DNA sequences undergo shortening with each cell division, serving as markers of a cells replicative history and an indicator of cellular aging. Using quantitative telomere protein nucleic acid fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) analyses of metaphase and interphase preparations from age matched pairs of participants with Down syndrome with and without dementia, there are four observations being observed. The first observation is there are shorter telomeres in individuals with dementia. Next, the individual chromosomes 1 and 21 could be used alone and/or in combination to detect telomere shortening. The third observation is that the cells from individuals with dementia or MCI had reduced numbers of telomere signals when analyzed using a PNA telomere probe, and lastly the shorter telomeres in individuals with MCI (Jenkins, Velinov, Ye, Gu, Li et al., 2006). The Conclusion In conclusion, Down syndrome showed that it has a relationship with the pathology of Alzheimer disease. Triplication of chromosome 21that causes over expression of the amyloid-beta protein is the major cause towards the pathology of Alzheimer disease. Not only so, some other sub factors also contribute to it. After understanding the various causes that resulted in Down syndrome patients to have Alzheimer disease, it will be easier for us to invent more ways to treat all these symptoms and hence it will definitely benefit a lot of people that are associated with these diseases.

‘Hide and Seek’ by Vernon Scannell and ‘Half-past Two’ by U. A. Fanthorpe Essay

‘Hide and Seek’ concerns a boy hiding cautiously whilst playing hide and seek with his peers. Gradually, he realises he has been abandoned, and fear overcomes him due to being isolated in the dark surroundings. The tone is incredibly certain and positive at the beginning. However, his confidence gradually fades away as the realisation of his abandonment occurs. The mood is analogous to the tone. At first, we can sense the excitement. This modifies to anxiety and nervousness towards the end. The poet uses language features to portray the tone. On the first line, exclamation marks are used to show the enthusiasm of the boy. Scannell uses personification and the senses to describe the surrounding atmosphere in a vivid way. Therefore, the reader gets a clearer image. Occasional rhyme is used to add a sense of rhythm to the poem. The poem is one continuous stanza. It is like dramatic monologue in that it creates character, but it is actually second person. The structure emphasises the unbearable length of waiting time. The adult speaks to his childhood self in second person, explaining feeling and thoughts. There are short sentences to build up tension and create stillness. The themes explored in ‘Hide and Seek’ are childhood experiences, reflection, isolation and abandonment. These themes are also explored in ‘Half- past Two’. This poem also explores various other themes such as time restriction and criticism of teaching methods. Half-past two is about a child who has been naughty. The punishment given by his teacher is to stay in the room until half- past two. She forgets that she hasn’t taught him time. He only understands his routines and throughout the poem we see how the child escapes time because he doesn’t know it. The poet uses tone and language methods to portray the way the child is treated. The mood for the majority of the poem is quite dreamy and we get the feeling that the boy is confused. In terms of language, personification is used effectively to show the child’s view of time. The use of senses creates the surrounding atmosphere like in the previous poem, ‘Hide and Seek’. Compound words are used to show the routines of the boy and the only time concepts he understands. Rhythm is produced by the repetition of compound words and by the fact that they are said in a child’s sing- song voice. Half-past two is divided into eleven three lines stanzas. Irony is expressed through the organised structure, as it contrasts with the boy’s feelings. In ‘Hide and Seek’ the child is hiding carefully, checking ‘feet aren’t sticking out,’ and taking precautions such as not risking ‘another shout.’ Gradually, we realise his friends have purposely abandoned him, but the child is very naive and thinks he is ‘the winner.’ He realises in ‘the darkening garden’ that he has been neglected. The poem is written in second person. ‘They’ll never find you in this salty dark.’ This gives us the impression that the narrator is an adult looking back on the experience. The senses are used in order to describe the surrounding atmosphere in a more vivid way. ‘The sacks in the tool shed smell like the seaside.’ Scannell also uses personification, which causes us to imagine how the child is feeling at that particular point. ‘The cold bites through your coat.’ Personification is effective at portraying the child’s feelings as it is easier for us to understand something if it is described to us in a more physical way. The majority of personification is used towards the end to give a sense of foreboding. ‘The darkening garden’ watching emphasises his isolation in a scary place whereas ‘the bushes hold their breath’ can show what the child may be doing because he is scared. In extreme circumstances when people are very scared, they hold their breath without knowing. Scannell applies punctuation to portray the tone and mood of the poem. ‘I’m ready! Come and find me!’ The exclamation marks highlight the excitement of the child. We detect a positive attitude and certainty due to the use of the imperative rather than taking orders. A question is used at the end to portray the uncertain and anxious emotions the child is feeling. ‘But where are they who sought you?’ This is the voice of the adult reflecting on a bitter experience. It is symbolic that the poem begins with the imperative and exclamation marks and conspicuously ends with confusion and question marks. It emphasises the gradual change from having a positive attitude to realisation of isolation. An alternative point that proves that the mood is positive at the beginning  is that the child compares the current situation to a typical, happy one the majority of children’s experience. ‘The sacks in the tool shed smell like the seaside.’ This gives the impression of a dazzling, sunny beach with a lot of happy children playing without constraints and restriction. This is ironic as the child is isolated in a dark, begrimed place with restricted space. The poem is one continuous stanza. The dramatic monologue symbolizes the unbearable length of waiting time. The character is speaking directly to us, explaining his different feelings and thoughts. The poem can be divided into two parts. They are positivity and certainty, and negativity and realisation. The first line of the second part is, ‘it seems a long time since they went away.’ Previously, the child attempts to convince himself they are still looking for him. ‘They must be thinking you’re very clever.’ The effect of this is to emphasise the naivety and innocence of the child. For the majority of the poem, the child is positive, but only for a minority is he negative. This can accentuate the fact a child may spend more time with fallacious ideas than in actual reality. Short sentences are used to build up tension. ‘Don’t breathe. Don’t move. Stay dumb.’ These sentences are said slower than the rest of the poem, creating a tense stillness. The pace slows down. Occasional rhyme is present in ‘Hide and Seek’. ‘Out, shout,’ ‘coat, throat.’ A sense of rhythm is added to the poem. I think there are four main themes explored in the poem; childhood memories, isolation, abandonment, feeling unwanted and reflection. Reflection and childhood memories can be connected as the whole poem is about an adult reflecting on a childhood memory. This is proven by the fact that the whole of the poem is written in second person. ‘You’ve never heard them sound so hushed before.’ This is more personal than using ‘he’ or ‘him.’ Isolation is another theme. The innocent child doesn’t think so, but for the  whole of the poem, he is alone. In the positive part of the poem, he believes that his friends are outside, but close to him. ‘They’re moving closer, someone stumbles, mutters;’ The child believes his friends are so close, he can even hear they’re discreet actions, usually unnoticeable. Like the last theme, it emphasises the naivety and innocence of the boy. An alternative point to verify that the boy is in isolation is the fact that he is in ‘the darkening garden’ as he emerges from ‘the tool shed.’ There is emphasis on the amount of darkness in his surroundings. This can be interpreted as a symbol of loneliness. This brings about fear, especially in young children. The fact that ‘the sun is gone’ is another symbol for darkness being present. For children, the sun and brightness are indications of happiness and contentment within a group. The theme of abandonment can be associated with isolation because he is alone. It is clear to us that his friends purposefully abandon the boy. ‘Their words and laughter scuffle, and they’re gone.’ We realise this a considerable time before the boy does. This emphasises that most of the time, children are left in the dark, and elders know beforehand. Feeling unwanted is another major theme of ‘Hide and Seek’. This is how the child feels when the realisation of his abandonment occurs to him. ‘Yes, here you are. But where are they who sought you?’ It is likely that the child feels his peers abandoned him because they do not like him. This action and the subsequent emotion are common with children. The child is left confused thinking that there is something wrong with them. I can tell by the bitterness of the adult’s tone that this is how the child feels. ‘You’re legs are stiff, the cold bites through your coat.’ He is trying to show that all the pain he went through was not worth it because he was unwanted. Similarly to ‘Hide and Seek’, ‘Half- past Two’ is about a young child. He has done something naughty in school and is told by his teacher to stay in the room until ‘Half- past Two’. In her rush, she forgets that ‘She hadn’t taught him Time.’ The only time concepts he is aware of and understands are daily routines such as ‘Gettinguptime,’ ‘Timeyouwereofftime.’ Whilst  waiting, he escapes into a ‘clockless land’ ‘out of reach of all the timefors.’ The teacher returns, slots ‘him back into school time’ and tells him to leave, or else he’ll be late. Contrasting with ‘Hide and Seek’, ‘Half- past Two’ is written in third person. ‘He did Something Very Wrong.’ I think the narrator is the adult looking back on a childhood experience. The poet doesn’t make it very obvious by using first person, or second person like ‘Hide and Seek’. Fanthorpe uses personification to portray the child’s view of the clock. ‘The little eyes, and two long legs for walking.’ This view is a child’s typical perception and establishes how naive a child can be, a comparison to ‘Hide and Seek’. Personification is used further when Fanthorpe uses the pun, ‘He couldn’t click its language.’ She is progressing further from the point that a child views a clock as a living object. A clock produces a ticking noise. To the child, this is how it talks. The pun stresses the point that he can’t understand a clock, and therefore time. Personification is used in ‘Hide and Seek’, but for different purposes. It is to give a clearer image, rather than show a child’s perception of an object. A comparison to ‘Hide and Seek’ concerning language is that the senses create a clearer atmosphere for the reader. ‘The smell of old chrysanthemums on Her desk.’ Another reason for the use of senses differing from ‘Hide and Seek’ at this particular point is to show how people, especially children notice insignificant things when they are alone. Their concentration increases due to minimal distraction. ‘Into the silent noise his hangnail made.’ The senses are used when he escapes into the ‘clockless land of ever’. A significant stanza of the poem is where ‘she slotted him back into schooltime.’ An image of this is created in our minds of a mechanical action. It is as if he is being taken out of one zone and put back into another instantly. The alliteration on this line causes the poem to be more rhythmic. Subsequent to escaping the timeless world, the teacher’s words are in  italics. ‘I forgot all about you.’ I think this is to make her lines prominent. These lines are important because they emphasise the fact that the child was neglected. Compound words are used to portray the child’s routines, the only time concepts he understands. ‘Gettinguptime, timeyouwereofftime, timetogohomenowtime.’ I think his parents and other carers in his life say these. The repetition of compound words creates a sense of rhythm. They seem to be said in a sing- song tone, emphasising the patronizing tone to the child because of his age. A patronizing tone is used previously towards the boy. ‘He did Something Very Wrong.’ The title case states the words that are emphasised. She thinks that if she uses a normal tone, the message won’t get through to him. In the last stanza, we can sense the wistful tone of the narrator. ‘Where time hides tick- less waiting to be born.’ He wishes he could escape into this land where he isn’t restricted by time, like most adults. The narrator shows bitterness by using a satirical and sarcastic tone. ‘(I forget what it was.)’ This mocks the teacher by trying to show that she was making a big deal out of something insignificant. The mood in the poem is dreamy, especially when the boy escapes into the timeless zone. ‘Beyond onceupona.’ The mood emphasises his confusion by the unfamiliar concept of time. The dreamy mood is also indicated by the fairytale references. ‘Once upon a schooltime.’ The word ‘time’ is substituted for alternative words or none at all. Not only do fairytale references portray the mood, but also the fact that fairytales are childish and contain fantasy aspects. The moods in ‘Half- past Two’ are a contrast to the mood in ‘Hide and Seek’. The poem is divided into eleven three-line stanzas, showing organisation. Irony is expressed through the organised structure, as it contrasts with the boy’s feelings. This is a very noticeable difference to the structure of ‘Hide and Seek’. A  further distinction is that occasional brackets are used in ‘Half- past Two’ as opposed to none in ‘Hide and Seek’. One stanza is dedicated to criticizing teaching methods and sarcastically mocking her. ‘(Being cross, she’d forgotten she hadn’t taught him Time. He was too scared of being wicked to remind her.)’ The brackets represent the insignificance of the teacher’s actions. The themes explored in ‘Half- past Two’ that are also explored in ‘Hide and Seek’ are childhood memories, isolation, abandonment and reflection. Also, restriction of time and freedom of childhood. Like in ‘Hide and Seek’, the themes of childhood memories and reflection can be closely tied together because in my view, the poem is about an adult looking back on a childhood experience. Unlike ‘Hide and Seek’, this isn’t indicated by the use of second person as the poem is written in third person, a less personal approach. It is indicated by the tone in the final stanza. ‘But he never forgot how once by not knowing time†¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ The tone is pensive and regretful. The adult wishes he had the power to escape into the ‘clockless land of ever.’ This brings me to my next point that restriction by time is a theme explored in ‘Half- past Two’, but not ‘Hide and Seek’. The last stanza is the adult reflecting. ‘He escaped into the clockless land of ever, where time hides tick- less waiting to be born.’ The quote emphasises the fact that an innocent child isn’t restricted by time as oppos ed to adults. An additional theme is isolation. Contrary to ‘Hide and Seek’, the child is aware of his isolation, but confused at how to escape it. ‘So he waited†¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ His child like qualities are emphasised by the fact that he needs an older responsible figure to help and guide him. Abandonment, another theme, occurs when his teacher as opposed to friends in ‘Hide and Seek’ deserts the child. In both poems, the child is abandoned, but the teacher and the friends have different intentions. The friends do it as a joke and assume the child will find his way back, whereas the teacher ignored and forgot the boy. ‘Stay in the schoolroom till half- past two.’ In conclusion, I think the differences outweigh the similarities. An important similarity is that both are about adults reflecting on childhood experiences. In ‘Hide and Seek’, the adult is regretful and despises the experience, whereas in ‘Half- past Two’, the adult wishes he could relive the experience. Another difference is the structures of both poems. ‘Hide and Seek’ is one continuous stanza, whereas ‘Half- past Two’ consists of eleven three line stanzas. Regarding language, both poems use personification and senses to vividly describe the surrounding atmosphere. Unlike ‘Half- past Two’, ‘Hide and Seek’ uses punctuation to portray the change in tone and mood. Regarding themes, all themes explored in ‘Hide and Seek’ are explored in ‘Half- past Two’ as well as more. A noticeable difference is the content of both poems. The experiences are totally different as are the reactions a nd personal opinions of them. I enjoyed reading ‘Hide and Seek’ more than ‘Half- past Two’. This is because I thought ‘Hide and Seek’ was more effective at vividly portraying the experience. In ‘Half- past Two’, it was harder to get a grasp of the content and symbolism within the poem.

Ap European History Renaissance Education Dbq Exercise Essay

During the Renaissance, scholars became more interested in the humanistic features of society, and humanistic educators based their teaching models on Greek and Latin classics. Renaissance education was One apparent purpose of a Renaissance education was to praise the value of useful education, through the teaching of the classics, mainly Greek literature that was written by Greek philosophers, mathematicians and other important figures. Some criticised the Renaissance education, however, because they felt as if it was absurd, as it didn’t teach true values of learning, and didn’t teach one how to behave, but rather how to dictate Latin. Despite these criticisms, other humanists believed Renaissance learning brought great profits, higher positions, and more honors later in life, and was successful in the task of teaching young people to fear god, have good virtue, and to be disciplined. One apparent purpose of a Renaissance education was to praise the value of useful education, through the teaching of the classics, mainly Greek literature that was written by Greek philosophers, mathematicians and other important figures. Aeneas Sylvius Piccolomini, stated on his book, On the Education of Free Men, 1450, that the study of the Philosophy and of Letters was the guide to the meaning of the past, present, and even future. There may be some bias to this statement, for Piccolomini was an Italian humanist who later became pope, and may have been using his knowledge of the classics, being a humanist, to justify his religious and political power. Battista Guarino, an Italian humanist educator, also supports the classics, by simply explaining that mankind must learn and train in Virtue, or as the ancients called the â€Å"Humanities. † There is also a bit of point of view, however, because being an Italian humanist educator, Guarino would value the teaching of the classics to his students and would want to influence his opinion on others. Baldassare Castiglione, Italian diplomat and author, said that a courtier, or a king’s assistant or servant, should be educated in the humanities, and the Latin poets, orators, and historians, because women value that knowledge in a man, and he will be able to judge the writing of others. Erasmus also stated that the student must delve into the literatures of ancient Greece and Rome, to gain the knowledge in the classics. Erasmus has a particular point of view, because he practiced a humble religion, and tried to live the way Jesus lived, which would make him value things the ancients valued. Some criticised the Renaissance education, however, because they felt as if it was absurd, as it didn’t teach true values of learning, and didn’t teach one how to behave, but rather how to dictate Latin. Juan Luis Vives, a Spanish humanist, supported the idea that women should not learn much, but rather just enough to teach her good manners and literature from biblical scholars. There is a great deal of bias in this idea, because being Spanish, Christian, and male, Vives would not agree with women being educated, due to the fact that Spain was very conservative, especially after the Reconquista. Michel de Montaigne argued that the â€Å"absurd† educational system taught students the wrong values, by teaching them that writing the best Greek and Latin was more important the which books contain the best opinions. Montaigne’s point of view comes from the fact that he is a skeptic and criticizes numerous things, so it is likely that he would criticize the educational system. John Brinsley, an English schoolmaster objected that scholars at fifteen or sixteen years of age due not understand true knowledge, but instead the can only wrote Latin that means little. Brinsley had an interesting perspective, because he was a schoolmaster himself and saw these actions firsthand, from his young scholars. Another criticism of the school system was that such study weakens the body, and prevents people from obtaining jobs necessary to society, such as farming jobs, soldiers, and merchants. John Amos Comenius, and educational reformer, also said supported the idea that learning did not assist people enough in life, because students learned much grammar, rhetoric, and logic, instead of things that would prepare them for action later in life. Despite these criticisms, other humanists believed Renaissance learning brought great profits, higher positions, and more honors later in life, and was successful in the task of teaching young people to fear god, have good virtue, and to be disciplined. Francesco Guicciardini stated that things that seem more decorative than substantial to man, such as skills like the arts, led to a good reputation of men and open the way to favor a princess. These skills also led to great profits and honors. The perspective in this statement comes from the fact that he was a politician, and witnessed how his education in these arts helped him to improve his rank in society, gain a larger profit, and other benefits. Some also supported the Renaissance education from a religious side by explaining that children who go to school learned virtue, discipline, and to fear God, which were important Christian values. In an analysis of the percentage of justices of the Peace who attended university, around 1562, in Kent, only two percent of justices had attended university. This number increased dramatically in 1636, when an astonishing sixty eight percent of justices had attended university. This clearly demonstrated the value of a Renaissance education, and how it led to higher ranks, for instance, justices.